II. AIR POLLUTION

The term ‘air pollution’ (‘emissions’) includes a whole range of processes during which pollutants get released into the air. The sources of air pollution can be of natural or anthropogenic origin, and the boundary between these types is not always entirely clear. Natural sources include, for example, volcanic activity, fires or the production of pollutants by plants. Activities carried out by humans are referred to as anthropogenic sources. Primary air pollution is the release of pollutants into the air directly from their sources whereas secondary air pollution gets created as a result of physical and chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

The CHMI, being mandated by the Ministry of the Environment, evaluates ambient air pollution levels of anthropogenic pollutants and GHG. The assessment of the level of air pollution is based on so-called emission inventories. Emission inventorying combines the direct approach, i.e. the collection of data reported by operators of pollution sources with data from model calculations based on data reported by operators or gained by statistical surveys carried out primarily by the CSO. The resulting emission inventories are presented as emission balances structured by sector and area¹.

Emissions of air pollutants

The Register of Emissions and Stationary Sources (REZZO) is used for archiving and presenting data on stationary and mobile sources of air pollution, and pursuant to Section 7 of the Air Protection Act, it is part of the Air Quality Information System (AQIS) operated by the CHMI. Air pollution sources are divided into individually monitored sources and sources monitored as area sources. Since 2013, in connection with changes to the categorization of sources pursuant to Annex 2 to the Air Protection Act, REZZO sources have been newly categorized (Table II.1).

The international reporting of summary emission data uses the so-called sector classification of sources based on the Nomenclature for Reporting Codes – NFR. The main monitored groups of sources include combustion sources including transportation (NFR 1), technological sources without combustion (so-called process emissions; NFR 2), sources using solvents (NFR 2D), agricultural activities, including farm animals breeding (NFR 4B) and waste treatment (NFR 5). In addition emissions of major pollutants, emissions of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 particles, heavy metals and POP are also reported.²

Emissions from individually monitored sources in the Czech Republic

Sources monitored individually are specified in Annex No. 2 to the Air Protection Act. The operators of these sources are obliged, pursuant to Section 17, Paragraph 3, Point c, to keep operational records of constant and fluctuating information on the stationary source describing the said source and its operation, as well as information on inputs and outputs from the said source, and report data each year as the summary operational records (SPE) through the Integrated system of the fulfilment of notification obligations (ISPOP). The data from ISPOP are then submitted to the REZZO 1 and REZZO 2 databases. Data are collected from January to the end of March. The reported data are thus available already in early April. In the following months the reported data are reviewed and processed, and, if necessary, the suppliers are asked to correct the erroneous data ³.

For the purposes of international reporting and air quality modelling, emissions of pollutants for which the operators are not required to ascertain the level of polluting are calculated for each source in the emission database on the basis of reported activity data and emission factors. Emission factors for stationary combustion sources are divided according to the type of combustion plant and output of heat as activity data fuel consumption expressed in t.year^-1, thousand.m³.year^-1, or the content of heat in fuel in GJ.year^-1 are used. For other sources, emission factors are related to the amount of the product in tonnes.

To determine the emissions of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, emission factors expressed as the percentage of PM_x fraction in total emissions of solid pollutants (TSP) are used. If a source is equipped with a device for the reduction of TSP emissions, the share of particles depends on the separation principle of the device. In the combustion sources not equipped with a separator, the share of the particles is determined according to the type of fuel; in other sources the origin of TSP is a crucial factor (Hnilicová 2012).

Emissions from the collectively monitored sources in the Czech Republic

The air pollution sources monitored collectively are registered in REZZO 3 and include emissions from local household heating, fugitive TSP emissions from building and agricultural activity, ammonia emissions from the breeding of farm animals and application of mineral nitrogenous fertilizers and VOC emissions from the use of organic solvents and emissions of TSP and VOC from coal mines and landfills.

With the exception of emissions from household heating, emissions from collectively monitored sources are calculated exclusively with the use of data obtained within the national statistical monitoring, and the potential year-to-year changes ensue usually from the development of the respective statistical indicators. On the contrary, the year-to-year changes of the amount of emissions from local household heating are dependent primarily on the character of the heating season, which is expressed in the emission model by the number of degree days (see Chapter III.), and on the changes of the composition of combustion plants. The calculation of emissions from local household heating is based mainly on the results of the population and housing census statistical survey (SLBD). Fuel consumptions in households for the period 1990–1999 were estimated according to the methodology of 1997 (Machálek, Machart 1997) and for the period 2000–2013 according to the methodology of 2007 (Machálek, Machart 2007).

Also monitored collectively are data on mobile sources (REZZO 4), which include emissions from road, railway, water and air transport, off-road vehicles (machines used in agriculture, forestry and building industry, military vehicles, etc.). The database includes also emissions from tyre and brake wear and road abrasion calculated from data on transport performance. Since 1996 the emission balance from mobile sources has been carried out by the CDV based on the data on the sale of fuels submitted by the ČAPPO (since 2000 based on data from the CSO) and their own emission factors (Dufek et al. 2006). Emissions from mobile sources in agriculture and forestry are processed by the VÚZT. The consistent time series of emissions from traffic are available since the year 2000. It was difficult to update of the emission inventory for the period 1990–1999 due to a lack of input data on fuel sales.

Recalculation of emissions

The emissions inventory for the year 2014 newly encompassed emissions of heavy metals, tyre and brake wear and road abrasion, which are especially important for emissions of lead, copper and zinc. The first emissions inventory of the pollutant black carbon (BC), the main source of which is trans- portation and local household heating, was for the year 2014. These updates to the emissions inventory are based on methodologies and emission factors presented in the EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook (EEA 2013c). The addition of these data to emission inventories for previous years for the purpose of maintaining data consistency is planned for the year 2017.

The development of emissions

The development of air pollution is closely connected with the economic and socio-political situation and with the improvement of knowledge about the environment, which has enabled more complete and more accurate emission inventories. Emissions from stationary sources of the REZZO1 and REZZO2 categories decreased markedly in the period 1990–2015 due to the implementation of the air quality control system, implementing a number of tools at various levels (normative, economic, information, etc.). The impacts of these tools were most evident in the late 1990s, i.e. in the period when emission limits set by the then new legislation came into general effect. The significant decrease in emissions produced by the most important sources resulted, among other things, in the reduction of long-range transport of pollutants from the most significant sources. However, there are still problems with meeting ambient pollution limits, so attention has recently been focused also on sources belonging to the REZZO 3 and REZZO 4 categories. So far, no effective measures have been implemented for their regulation.

Emissions trend in the period 1990–2001

Act No. 309/1991 Coll. on air protection, supplemented by Act No. 389/1991 Coll. on air protection authorities of the state and air pollution charges, came into force in 1991. This act, for the first time in the history of the Czech Republic, implemented emission limit values effective from the year 1998. This schedule was arranged to help prepare pollution sources for the new operating conditions. The national economy was restructured, the sources were modernized, and many of them closed or reduced their operations. These changes were reflected, for example, in the sector of iron and steel production, where after 1990 a significant decrease of production occurred (Fig. II.3). For instance, the termination of pig iron production in the Vítkovice ironworks in 1998 contributed to the improvement of ambient air quality in the Ostrava city centre. Since 1991, in the sector of electricity and heat production, old boilers have been retired, modernized, or replaced by new low-emission fluid boilers. In the period 1996–1998, all coal burning power stations were equipped with desulphurization units. Combustion sources with lower thermal output (heating plants/boiler houses) gradually replaced solid and liquid fossil fuels with natural gas. The number of pollutants for which fees were charged increased, as did the fees for emission releases. These measures resulted in a decrease of emissions of all pollutants belonging to the categories REZZO 1 and REZZO 2.

In the sector of local household heating, the greatest decrease of emissions was recorded in 1993–1997 due to the gasification and government subsidies for electricity heating. The consumption of solid fossil fuels in the year 2001 was by 60 % lower in comparison with the year 1990 (Fig. II.4).

Country-wide emissions in 2001 were lower compared to the year 1990 by 87 % for TSP, by 88 % for SO₂, by 68 % for NO_x, by 39 % for CO, by 45 % for VOC and by 48 % for NH₃ (Fig. II.1).

Emissions trend in the period 2002–2012

New legislation, reflecting a number of European directives, came into force in 2002. Act No. 86/2002 Coll. on air protection was adopted, which together with Act No. 76/2002 Coll. on the integrated prevention and limitation of pollution created the basic framework for the solution of air pollution problems. The Czech Republic committed itself to meeting the national emission ceilings for emissions of SO₂, NO_x, VOC and NH₃ pursuant to Directive No. 2001/81/EC as from 2010. A more significant decrease of emissions from sources belonging to the REZZO 1 category resulted from the fulfilment of the National programme to reduce emissions from existing extra-large combustion sources (Government Order No. 372/2007 Coll.), which implemented the emission ceilings for TSP, SO₂ and NO_x set for individual sources of LCP⁴ since 2008. The reduction of emissions from industrial processes was influenced by the decline of a number of branches of production after the year 2007 caused by the economic crisis (Fig. II.3).

The favourable trend of decreasing consumption of solid fossil fuels in the sector of local household heating did not continue after 2001, mainly due to growing prices of natural gas and electricity. In the period 2002–2007, the consumption of coal decreased, as it was replaced by increasingly popular firewood. These changes led to a reduction of TSP and SO₂ emissions. Since 2009, thermal insulation is being installed on buildings and eco-unfriendly heating is being replaced by low-emission sources thanks to government subsidies within the Green Savings Programme. So far, however, the effect of these measures on the total emission balance of this sector has been marginal.

The level of air pollution in 2012 decreased in comparison with the year 2001 as follows: TSP by 34 %, SO₂ by 31 %, NO_x by 35 %, CO by 29 %, VOC by 38 % and NH₃ emissions by 22 % (Fig. II.2).

Emissions trend since 2013

The Air Protection Act, which came into force in 2012 introduced stricter emission limits for combustion sources pursuant to Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions. Certain new emission limits will come into force a time-progressive basis to give operators of pollution sources time to prepare for complying with these limits. Before 2016 we can therefore expect a continuation of the decreasing trend in emissions from listed stationary sources.

The Air Protection Act also focuses on limiting emissions from the sector of local household heating and introduces minimum values of emissions parameters for combustion sources with total nominal thermal input of less than 300 kW at their introduction to the market starting from 2014 and 2018. From the year 2022 onwards, it will only be allowed to operate, within this group of sources, boilers that meet emission class 3, which should lead to the shutdown of old-type boilers and their replacement by more modern appliances with lower emissions.

The Czech Republic has agreed to further reduce emissions as laid down by the revised Gothenburg Protocol, which prescribes the following reductions of emissions by 2020 as compared to 2005: PM_2.5 by 17 %, SO₂ by 45 %, NO_x by 35 %, VOC by 18 % and NH₃ by 7 %. Within the EU, preparations are underway for a directive restricting atmospheric emissions of selected pollutants from combustion facilities with thermal input between 1 and 50 MW and the Ecodesign Directive, aimed at combustion sources with thermal input of up to 1 MW.

The year-on-year development of emissions of pollutants in 2015 follows the trend of the last years and confirms the expected impact of legislative changes made in 2012. The slight increase in the number of degree-days in the colder 2015 heating season caused an increase of emissions from heating (in the case of households by approximately 7 %), and the more pronounced increase SO2 emissions (by 24 % from household heating) is connected with an increase of the average content of sulphur in supplied sorted coal (Tyle 2016).

The decrease of SO₂ emissions from sources included in the REZZO 1 group (by ca 7.6 kt) is to a large extent down to lower emissions from electric power plants operated by the company ČEZ, a. s. (by ca 6 kt). Considering the moderate, almost one-percent increase of electricity production, emissions decreased thanks to lower concentrations of pollutants produced especially by refurbished sources (e.g. the Mělník power produced on average 8 % lower emissions compared to 2014, and the Tušimice power plant produced 12 % lower emissions). The similar decrease of emissions of NOx (by ca 5 kt from sources included in the REZZO 1 group) is, among other reasons, down to the lowering of emissions limits for important combustion sources in 2015 (e.g. the Počerady power plant).

Tab. II.1 The classification of air pollution sources according to the method of emission monitoring

Tab. II.2 The comparison of emissions of main pollutants, 2013–2014 (preliminary data)

 

Fig. II.1 The development of total emissions, 1990–2001
 

Fig. II.2 The development of total emissions, 2002–2014
 

Fig. II.3 The output of basic industrial products, 1990–2014
 

Fig. II.4 Fuel Consumption in REZZO 3 sources, 1990–2015

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¹ Methodologies and results of emissions inventories.
² Emissions in NFR structure.
³ SPE control mechanism.
⁴LCP – Large Combustion Plants – combustion plants with nominal heat consumption of 50 MW and greater.